Table 5 Graphene-based 3D-printed scaffolds

Extrusion-based 3D-printing

PCL

+

Graphene

(0.13 and 0.78 wt.%)

Coating with P1-latex protein

Pattern:0/90 lay down;

90 °C;

slice thickness: 220 μm;

22 rpm;

speed: 20 mm/ s

Human adipose -derived stem cells (ADSCs) adhered/spread and presented a spindle-like morphology; osteogenic differentiation;

Scaffolds(0.78 wt.%): higher viability/spread

Compressive strength

(C_S)

C_s (0.13 wt.%): 80 MPa;

C_s(0.78 wt.%): 130 MPa

[116]

PCL

+

Graphene

(0.5 and 0.78 wt.%)

ADSCs adhered and proliferated. After 7 and 14 days, scaffolds with graphene exhibited better biological performance over the neat PCL scaffolds.

__

[117]

PCL

+

Modified graphene nanoplatelets (0.5 wt.%)

Pattern: 3 layers arranged in at 90°

Layers height: 0.15 mm; 190 °C;

Bed: 50 °C;

Speed: 15 mm/s

Adhesion and proliferation of human chondrocytes;

Higher cell proliferation in 3D scaffold comparing to polystyrene positive control;

Graphene did not increase the cellular toxicity

No mechanical results for scaffolds

Composite filaments (0.5 wt.% graphene):

Young’s modulus = 271 ± 29 MPa

Tensile strength: 16.35 ± 0.28

[118]

PCL

+

GO

(0.1 and 0.5 wt.%)

Cuboidal shape 22 layers

Layer thickness: 2.2 mm;

100 °C;

80–100 PSI;

Speed:1 mm/s

Murine preosteoblast cells with higher proliferation and osteogenic differentiation in scaffolds with 0.5 wt.% GO)

C_S (PCL):75.36 ± 4.07 MPa

C_s (PCL + GO) without any statistical significance

[119]

Thermoplastic polyurethane /PLA

+

GO

(0.5, 2, 5 wt.%)

Cuboid shape printing in height/width direction;

Layer thickness: 0.1 mm;

210 °C;

Bed: 60 °C;

Speed: 20 mm/s

NIH/3 T3 mouse fibroblast cells with higher adhesion and proliferation in scaffolds with 0.5wt.%GO.

Printing-lying specimen (0.5 wt.%): Tensile modulus and yield point increased by 75.50% (≃80 MPa) and 69.17%, respectively.

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Poly (trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC)

+

Graphene sheets from rGO

(3 wt.%)

7 layers; 1 × 1 cm

60–150 °C;

nitrogen pressure:

100–200 kPa;

cross-linking by UV irradiation for 10–15 min

MSCs with good attachment and viability

Addition of graphene did not alter cell number;

Electrical stimulation did not compromise MSCs and the osteogenic markers were upregulated

Tensile strength: 7.4 ± 0.3 MPa

Young’s Modulus: 19.1 ± 0.5 MPa

Elongation at break: 420 ± 11%

[104]

Chondroitin sulfate/ALG/gelatin+

GO

(1 mg ml^− 1)

30 × 30 × 1 mm^3;

mesh-like inner pattern:1.5 mm of thread spacing;

Speed:50 mm s^− 1;

Pressure: 1 bar; extrusion needle tip:25 G;

Petri dish at 2 °C; UV: 9 mW cm^− 2 for 5 min

hMSCs cells adhered and spread;

Composites presented cells with great proliferation, alignment and distribution;

Chondrogenic differentiation

C_s: ~ 100 kPa

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SLA

Commercial polyurethane: triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA)

/ PLA-PUA + few-layer graphene

(0.5 wt.%)

UV light: 20 W

Speed:

0.020 m.h^− 1

XY resolution: 47 μm,

Z resolution: 1.25 μm

Layer thickness 0.02 mm

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Resin:

Tensile strength: 68 MPa

Flexural strength: 115 MPa

Tensile strength:

41.8 MPa (Direct casting specimens)

62% higher (3D-printed specimens)

[122]

SLS

PVA+

GO

(2.5 wt.%)

Laser power: 5 W scan speed:400 mm.min^− 1 spot diameter: 1.6 mm scan spacing/ layer thickness, 2.7/0.1–0.2 mm, respectively

Human osteoblast like- MG-63 adhered and spread;

The addition of GO to PVA led to higher cell growth and proliferation comparing to pure PVA scaffold.

C_s: 240.49 kPa

Young’s Modulus: 2.47 MPa

Maximum tensile strength: 929.54 kPa

Elongation at break: 164.6%

[123]